UN Peace keeping operations in the World: A service to humanity.
UN Peace keeping operations in the World: A service to humanity.
The enormous successful Peacekeeping Operation vindicate that United Nations has accomplished its lofty objectives of service to humanity. The United Nations has justified its existence as effective global agency intended to bring and keep peace among international communities. No power can sideline or overshadow the United Nation, howsoever powerful on the earth. It must be remembered that the United Nation is not an external abstraction to resolve all problems that confronts sovereign states in their mutual relationships and a desire of living together as an international community.
Peacekeeping, as defined by the United Nations, is a way to help countries torn by conflict and creates conditions for sustainable peace. UN peacekeepers – soldiers and military officers, civilian police officers and civilian personnel from many countries – monitor and observe peace processes that emerge in post-conflict situations and assist ex-combatants in implementing the peace processes they have signed. Such assistance comes in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. All these operations must include the resolution of conflicts even through the use of force to be considered valid under the charter of the United Nations.
UN peacekeeping
missions involving
A Brief History of Some Past Contributions:
The history of Pakistan
Armed Forces’ commitment in peacekeeping can be traced back to 1960, when
Pakistani soldiers became part of the United Nations peacekeeping efforts in
From monitoring ceasefire when the warring parties accede to halt fighting, to peace enforcement and armed intervention. There are two ways the United Nation Endeavour’s about peace in the world.
PEACEMAKING
By virtue of its lofty role as the eminent forum for diplomatic activity, the United Nation is crucially placed to prevent, manage or resolve disputes through mediation and persuasion. The present Secretary General of the United Nation Kofi Anan describes peacemaking as: “The use of diplomatic means to persuade parties in conflict to cease hostilities and to negotiate a peaceful settlement of their dispute.” Peacemaking describes a range of diplomatic and political activities that attempt to bring parties in dispute together by amicable and peaceful means. Under its Charter, the first of the purpose of UN is “To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breachofpeace.”
Chapters VI and VII of the Charter spell out concrete measures which the United Nations security Council – the principal organ vested with the primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security – can take to achieve this purpose. Chapter VI, on the peaceful settlement of disputes “likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security” can be brought to the attention of the Security Council. The Security Council is mandated to call on the parties to settle their disputes by peaceful means, to recommend appropriate procedures or methods of adjustment and in addition, to recommend actual terms of settlement.
PEACEKEEPING
These opera rations are the most public face of the United Nations performance and aptly reflect its primary function for the maintenance and perseverance of world peace, fraternity, security and human development. Former UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros Ghali defined peacekeeping in ‘Agenda for Peace’ as: “The deployment of a UN presence in the field, hitherto with the consent of all parties concerned, normally involving UN military and/or Police personnel and frequently civilians as well.”
Former United Nation Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld, (Sweeden,1953-1961) perceived as father of UN peacekeeping, defined the principles of peacekeeping as “A mission must have the authorization of Security Council; UN involvement in a conflict requires the consent of the parties to that conflict; a mission must maintain operational neutrality and so must not influence the political balance of power between warring parties; peacekeepers should not use coercive force, except in self defense; and personnel for an operation must be recruited voluntarily from UN member states, excluding from permanent five members of the security council and states with interest in the conflict."
Peace-keeping is a technique that expands the possibilities for both the prevention of conflict and of conflict and the making of peace.”
A way to control conflicts and promotes peace and fraternity
Peacekeeping as a concept is not specifically described in the United Nations Charter. It goes beyond purely diplomatic means for the peaceful settlement of disputes described in chapter VI, but falls short of the military or other enforcement provisions of Chapter VII. As former Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld stated “peacekeeping might be put in a new Chapter Six and a half.”
Peace-keeping as pioneered by the United Nations as one of the means for maintaining international peace, security and human development. Interposed between antagonist and hostile states, or sometimes between hostile communities within state, international military personnel under the umbrella of United Nation have saved countless lives and contributed to creating the conditions necessary for the amicable and peaceful settlement of conflict or dispute through negations and persuasions. United Nations peacekeeping operations are a crucial “instrument at the disposal of the international community to advance international peace and security.”
United Nation peace-keeping activities have enhanced and broadened dramatically in recent time. In the span of five decade, the Organization has launched more operations than in previous years. The growth is not only in quantity but also in quality. Peace-keeping operations are taking on new tasks and often go beyond traditional activities. Peace-keeping operations are established by the Security Council and directed by the Secretary General, often through a special representative depending on the mission, the force commander or the Chief Military observer is responsible for the military aspects. The United Nation has no military force of its own, and Member States provide, on a voluntary basis, the personnel, equipment and logistics required for an operation. Member States carefully negotiate the terms of their participation, including command and control arrangements, and retain ultimate authority over their own military troops. Peacekeepers wear their country’s uniform: they are identified as peacekeepers only by a United Nations blue helmet or beret and a badge. “Peacekeeping operations fulfill the role of an impartial third party to help create and maintain a ceasefire and form a buffer zone between warring parties. This makes easier the search for amicable and peaceful settlement of conflict through diplomatic channels. As peacekeeper maintains peace on the ground, mediators from the United Nation meet with leaders from the disputing parties or countries and try to reach a peaceful solution to the problem.”
There are two types of peacekeeping operations: observer mission and peacekeeping forces. Observers are not armed. Soldiers of UN peacekeeping forces carry light weapons, which they use only in self-defense. They may protect relief shipments, provide services for victims, respond to refugee needs, enforce embargoes, remove mines, and seek to disarm warring parties. In addition to military –related aspects, many United Nation operations now involve a large civilian dimension: election monitoring, human rights verification, humanitarian relief, administrative management, institution building, and the restoration of infrastructure and services. Over 750000 soldiers and civilians have served under the UN flag in 56 peacekeeping operations since 1948. According to United Nation peacekeeping Statistical Data and Charts “there were 1,790 fatalities. Of the 1790 fatalities (35.14%) were caused by hostile actins and (64.86%) by non-hostile actions”
With the rise in demand for UN peacekeeping, particularly in the Balkans and Africa, the number of operations increased to 56 by the March 2003. According to United Nations Peacekeeping from 1991 to 2000 Statistical Data “over the past decade, the deployment of the military and civilian police has been subjected to wide fluctuations. The decade began with relatively low levels of military and civilian police deployment, with a total strength of approximately 10,000 in 1991. The strengths soared and reached their peak at approximately 78,000 in 1993, largely due to the expansions in the United Nations operation in United Nations Protection Force in Somalia (UNOSOM II). In late 1994, UNPROR alone had nearly 40,000 troops.”
The statistical data reveal that in 1995, the numbers of peacekeeping personnel declined sharply, mainly as a result of the end of mandates of UNOSOM II in March and December. As of January 1996, the total deployment of military and civilian police stood at approximately 29,000, less that half of its previous levels. These numbers continued to decline from 1996 until the middle of 1999 when they dropped to approximately 12,000.The trend was reversed towards the latter part of 1999 with the deployment of large mission in Kosovo, East Timor and Sierra Lone.
The Statistical Data further divulge that a noticeable trend during 1990s has been the growing participation of civilian police in peacekeeping operations. The United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC) employed approximately 3,500 civilian police in 1992-1993. The number hovered between 1,000 and 3,000 since the end the Cambodian operations, but began to increase in the later part of 1999 and stand at nearly 8,000 at the end of 2000. Reflecting the level of peacekeeping costs also fluctuated significantly in the 1190s. From a $0.4 billion budget in 1991, the costs rose to an all time high of $3.6 billion in 1993. The peacekeeping budgets decreased in the latter part of the decade and dropped to 1.0 billion in 1998. The peacekeeping costs increased in 1999-2000 and are projected for 2.5 billion in the peacekeeping budgetary cycle of July 2000 to June 2001.
Since the establishment of the United Nations in 1945, close to 130 nations have contributed military and civilian police personnel in 56 peacekeeping operations at various times. The last decade also showed a substantial increase in troop contributions of developing countries in the United Nations peacekeeping operations. For example, in the beginning of 1991, out of the top ten troop contributors, only two were developing countries, Ghana and Nepal, while by the end of 2000, eight out of the top ten troop contributors are developing countries: Bangladesh, Ghana, India, Jordan, Kenya, Nepal, Nigeria and Pakistan.
The effectiveness of peacekeeping forces derives from a combination of factors, foremost among them the presence of United Nations peacekeepers as physical expression f moral authority of the Organization and the concern of the international community.
Receiving the Nobel peace Prize
In 1988, the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to United Nations peacekeepers for “demanding and hazardous service in the cause of peace”. In accepting the award on their behalf, the then Secretary General, Javier Perez de Cuellar said “Peace-keeping operations symbolize the world community’s will to peace and represent the impartial, practical expression of that will. The award of the Nobel Peace Prize to these operations illustrates the hope and strengthens the promise of this extraordinary concept.” Of the peacekeepers, he said “to remain calm in the face of provocation, to maintain composure when under attack, he un troops, officers and soldiers alike, must show a special kind of courage, one that is more difficult to come by than the ordinary kind. Our UN troops have been put to the test and emerged triumphant”.
PEACE-KEEPING –an evolving technique
Peacekeeping operations have been used most commonly to supervise and help maintain cease-fires, to assist in troop withdrawal and to provide a buffer between opposing forces. However, these operations are flexible instruments of policy and have been adapted to a variety of uses. In the course of the past few years, the new political climate emerging from the end of the cold war has contributed to an increase in demand for United Nations peacekeeping. As new conflicts takes place within nations rather than between them, the UN today deals with civil wars, secessions, partitions, ethnic clash and tribal struggles. Rescuing failed states have become an inherent part of second –generation peacekeeping.
UN peacekeeping operations swiftly moved from traditional military peacekeeping tasks to multidimensional operations in disintegrating and failed states”.
Conditions for Successful peacekeeping operations
When a United Nations member states or group of states, or the Secretary General, proposes the establishment of a peace keeping operations, a number of basic conditions have to be met. First, the proposal must command the consent of warring parties. The operation must neither interfere in the internal affair of the host countries nor favors one party against another. Second, the proposal must command extensive support from the international community – specially, it must be adopted by Security Council. Third, Member states must be willing to volunteer personnel to serve under the command of United Nations Secretary General.
The success of a peace keeping operation also requires a clear and practicable mandate, the cooperation of the parties in implementing and enforcing that mandate, effectual United Nations command at headquarter and in the field, and adequate logistic and financial support. Finance for peace keeping operations
Assured and adequate financing for peacekeeping operations are sin qua non and vital. The annual United Nations Peacekeeping budget grew manifold. Peacekeeping operations were expected to cost around $2 billion every year-about 0.15 per cent of world military spending. Peacekeeping operations are financed through the peacekeeping budget and include troops from various countries; this “burden-sharing” can offer extraordinary efficiency in human, financial and political terms. As the Secretary General stated ion Agenda for Peace. “ The contrast between the costs of United nations peacekeeping and cost of alternative war between the demands of the Organization and the means provided to meet them-would be farcical were the consequences not so damaging to global stability and the credibility of the Organization.” He also noted that at the end of last decade, global expenditure had reached $1 trillion a year, or $2 million per minute. Following up on one of the recommendations contained in An Agenda for Peace, the General Assembly , in December 1992, decided to establish, under the Secretary General’s authority, a Peacekeeping Reserve Fund of $150 million as a cash-flow mechanism to ensure that the United Nations is able to respond rapidly and effectively to the growing demands of peacekeeping operations. According to United Nations Peacekeeping statistical data “total estimated cost of operations from 1st July to 30 June 2000 are $2.5 billion.”
In this Section of I would throw light on United Nations Peacekeeping Operations in each continent of the world.
PACEKEEPING OPERATIONS IN
There are 18 Peacekeeping
operations underway in
South Asia
UN Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan
UNMOGIP is the second oldest UN peace keeping mission. It was set up in 1949”.
The UN has continued to be concerned with the oldest dispute between India and Pakistan over Kashmir. This dispute has become a nuclear flash point in poverty ridden South Asia. A renowned Pakistani General states and expresses the mindset of Pakistan in 1995 that “durable peace may elude South Asia so long as the Kashmir dispute remains unsettled”. Intellectuals are agreed that “without settlement of Kashmir dispute, durable peace between the two countries cannot be maintained”. It has the dubious distinction of being the oldest unresolved dispute on the agenda of UN. This issue has eroded the credibility of the UN in the eyes of Muslims of the world. The Security Council first discussed the issue in 1948, following India’s complaint that tribesmen and others, with Pakistan’s help and participation, were invading Kashmir and that fighting was tasking place. Pakistan categorically denied the allegation and declared Kashmir’s accession to India illegal.
The Security Council
recommended measures to stop the fighting, including the use of observers, and
to create conducive conditions for a plebiscite. It established a United
Nations Commission for India and Pakistan, which made proposals on a ceasefire
and troop withdrawals, and proposed that the issue be decided by plebiscite.
Both sides accepted, but India did not agreed on the modalities for the
plebiscite. India had since then flied in the face of UN resolutions. As a
matter of fact, “almost all efforts and every constructive proposal to resolve
the dispute were dashed by the consistent and unyielding Indian obduracy”.
Since 1949, the UNMOGIP has been observing the ceasefire in this disputed area.
Following the 1972 India- Pakistan agreement defining a line of control in
turbulent Kashmir, the parties undertook to settle their difference peacefully
and amicably and achieve a final settlement. After the agreement, India as
usual, in order to avoid and gain time, maintained that the mandate of UNMOGIP
had lapsed, a position not accepted by Pakistan. The Secretary General has
maintained that only the Security Council can terminate the mission, and has
consistently expressed his readiness to facilitate the search for an overall
solution of this thorny problem. “By providing the people of
United Nations INDIA _ PAKISTAN OBSERVATION MISSION
The SC established to supervise the ceasefire along the India Pakistan border except in state of Jammu and Kashmir, where UNMOGIP operated, and the withdrawal of armed personnel to the positions held by them before 5 august 1965.
2. UN Good Offices Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan
Following soviet military intervention in Afghanistan in December, 1979, it was established by Security Council to assist the representative of Secretary General to lend his good offices to the parties in ensuring the implementation of the Agreements on the settlement of the situation relating to Afghanistan and in this context to investigate and report possible violations of any of the provisions of the agreements.
Following hectic efforts by the United Nations and world community the Geneva Accord was signed, committing Afghanistan and Pakistan to mutual non-interference and voluntary return of refugees and calling for Soviet withdrawal. Security Council authorizes UNGOMAP to monitor agreements implementation.
UN Peacekeeping Operations in Middle East
United Nations Truce Supervision Organization
It was established in 1948 to assist and support the mediator and the Truce Commission in supervising the observance of truce in Palestine. Since then, UNTSO has accomplished various tasks, including the supervision of the General Armistice Agreement of 1949 and the observation of the cease fire in the Suez Canal area and the Golan Heights following the Arab – Israel war of June 1967. “The United Nations has been concerned with the question of Middle East from its earliest days. It has formulated principles for a peaceful settlement and dispatched various peacekeeping operations, and continues to support efforts towards a just, lasting and comprehensive solution to the political problem” .
Unresolved, Arab-Israeli conflict led to warfare in 48, 56, 67 and 73, each conflict leading member states to call for United Nations mediation and peacekeeping missions. The 1956 conflict saw the deployment of the first full-fledged peacekeeping force, the United Nations Emergency Force, which oversaw troop withdrawals and contributed to peace and stability. Some strategic analyst regards the Middle East problem as a blot on the face of United Nation. It must strive to efface this ugly blot. The sole hyper power, United State should play its constructive and positive role to obliterate the notion of ineffectiveness of United Nations.
UNITED NATIONS EMERGENCY FORCE I, and II
The UNEF I commenced from November 1956- June 1967 and UNEF II from October 1973 to july1979.
Fallowing the nationalization of Suez Canal by Egypt Israel, France and United Kingdom attacked the former. Veto by France and United Kingdom prevented Security Council action. Emergency General Assembly session established UNEF1, first armed United Nations Peacekeeping force to supervise withdrawal of invading forces and acted as buffer between Egypt and Israel. In May 1967 Egypt compelled UNEF1 to withdraw. The maximum strength of the emergency force was 6073. Ninety fatalities occurred during the operations. The total expenditure was $214.3 million.
UN Observation Group in Lebanon
Violent conflict in Lebanon over proposed constitutional changes occurred. The Security Council in June December 1958 established UNOGIL to ensure that personnel, arms and material are not infiltrated across Lebanese border. After conflict is settled NOGIL was withdrawn.
UN Yemen observation Mission
Egypt and Saudi Arabia supported opposing forces in Yemen’s civil war which flared wider conflict. The Secretary General’s initiative succeeded and Disengagement Agreement was signed. The Security Council established United Nations Yemen Observation Mission to observe the implementation of the disengagement agreement between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Republic.
United Nations Disengagement Force
It was commenced from June 1974. Uneasy truce on the Golan Heights after 1973 war is replaced by agreed disengagement of Israeli forces and Syrian forces. The SC established UNDOF to supervise the cease-fire between Israel and Syria; to supervise the disengagement of Israeli and Syrian forces; and to supervise the areas of separation and limitation, as provided in the Agreement on Disengagement between Israeli and Syrian forces of 31 may 1974. The current strength is 1120 troops assisted by the military observers of UNTSO’s Observer group Golan. The annual cost is approximately $36 million.
United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon
It was commenced from March 1978 to confirm the withdrawal of Israeli forces from southern Lebanon following the brutal invasion of Israel in Lebanon. The Security Council establishes UNIFIL to restore peace and security and help Lebanese Government restore its effective authority in area. The current strength is 5280 troops, and 190 fatalities happened. The annual cost is approximately $146 million.
UNITED NATIONS IRAN-IRAQ MILITARY OBSERVER GROUP
After eight year of fratricidal war and following hectic diplomacy led by Secretary General, Iran and Iraq agree to ceasefire. It functioned between august 1988 to February 1191. The SC established UNIIMOG to verify, confirm and supervise the ceasefire and the withdrawal of all forces to the internationally recognized boundaries, pending a comprehensive settlement. Unite Nations observers concluded mission in 1991 after confirming withdrawal of both sides’ forces to internationally recognized borders.
UN IRAQ – KUWAIT OBSERVATION MISSION
It was established in April 1991 following Himalayan blunder by the Iraqi President Saddam of invading a Muslim country. The United Nations response to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in1991 illustrates the range of options it has at its disposal in the pursuit of restoring international peace and security. The Security Council immediately condemned the invasion, demanded Iraq’s unconditional and immediate withdrawal, and rightly imposed comprehensive sanctions against Iraq. At the 1990 session of the General Assembly, all member states condemned Iraq’s brutal action.
The Security Council set 15 January 1991 as the deadline for Iraq’s compliance with the Councils resolutions, and authorized member states cooperating with Kuwait to use “all necessary means” to implement these resolutions and restore international peace and security in the area. Faced with Iraq’s non-compliance, on 16 January coalition forces led by United States firmly pledge to restore Kuwait’s sovereignty and began attacks against Iraq. Hostilities were suspended in February, after the Iraqi forces had left Kuwait. By resolution 687 (1991), the Security Council sets terms for a ceasefire, demanded that Iraq and Kuwait respect the borders inviolability, called for deploying United Nations observers, took action on compensation for war damages, and decided that Iraq’s weapons of mass destruction should be eliminated.
The Security Council established a demilitarized zone along the border. To monitor the zone, it set up an observer mission, the United Nations Iraq – Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM). Originally, it was established as an unarmed observation mission with the mandate to monitor the Khawr “Abd Allah waterway between Iraq and Kuwait and the Demilitarized zone. To deter violations of the boundary through its presence in and surveillance of the Demilitarized Zone, and to observe any hostile action mounted from the territory of one state against the other. In February 1993, following a series of incidents in January, the Security Council decided to increase UNIKOMs strength and to extend its terms of reference to include the capacity to take physical action to prevent violation of the DMZ and of the newly demarcated boundary between Iraq and Kuwait. The strength was 3645 military personnel. The annual cost was approximately $65 million.
PEACEKEEPING OPERATIONS IN CENTRAL ASIA
UN Mission Observers in Tajikistan
Tajikistan is destabilized by civil war after getting independence from Soviet Union. From 1992, United Nation pursues good offices between Government and united Tajik Opposition. Commonwealth of independent States deploys peacekeeping force. UNMOT monitors ceasefire and maintains liaison with CIS force. Parties sign general peace agreement in June 1997 and UNMOT is expanded to help monitor implementation.
UN Observer Mission in Georgia
Abkhaz separatists attempt to secede from Georgia. Fighting erupts in 1992 as Government troops try to secure rail and communications links. The sc set up UNOMIG to verify 1993 ceasefire, but suspends deployment when ceasefire breaks down. In May 1994, Commonwealth of Independent States deploys peacekeeping force. Expanded UNOMIG observes operation of Commonwealth of Independent of States and implementation
UN Peacekeeping Operation in South East Asia and FAR EAST
UN Security Force in West New Guinea
There was dispute between Indonesia and Netherlands over West Irian. The General Assembly establishes Agreement on UN Temporary Executive Authority (UNTEA) to assume administrative responsibility for territory, pending transfer to Indonesia. Both UNTEA and UNSF monitor ceasefire and help ensure law and order during transition.
UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia
Cambodia’s four factions sign Paris Agreement in October 1991. UNTAC disarm and demobilizes armed forces, control administrative structures, promotes human rights, repatriate refugees, conducted elections and begins country’s rehabilitation. The election was successfully held in May 1993. UNTAC withdraws after promulgation of constitution.
UN Advance Mission in Cambodia
It paved way for UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia. It operated from October 1991 to March 1992.
UN TRANSITIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN EAST TIMOR
In August 1999, UN conducts poll in which East Timorese chose to separate from Indonesia. Security Council authorizes International Force (INTERFET) to restore order. Security Council sets up UNTAET to help East Timorese make transition to independence, administer the Territory, build capacity for self government, organize elections and create structure for rule of law and human rights.
UN MISSION IN HAITI
In September 1991, the first democratically elected President is overthrown. Following agreement to restore constitutional Government, UNMIH created to help modernize army and set up new police. Coup leaders prevent UNMIH’s deployment, and advance team withdraws. In 1994, multinational force restores legitimate government. UNMIH takes over to sustain secure environment, help set up new police and create conditions for free and fair elections. Follow on operations continue to support the professionalization of national police. UN Support Mission in Haiti (July 1996-July 1997), UN Transition Mission in Haiti (August 1997-Nov 1997) and UN Civilian Police Mission in Haiti (DEC_1997-March 2000) also performed tasks in Haiti under the Security Council Prescriptions.
United Nations Peacekeeping Operations in Europe
UN Peacekeeping Force in Cyprus
The Security Council sets up UNFICYP in 1964 to prevent further fighting between Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot communities and to contribute to maintenance of law and order and return to normal conditions. Turkish military intervention on heels of 1974 coup by members of Greek Cypriot National Guard leaves island divided. UNFICYP remains to supervise ceasefire lines, maintain buffer zone and undertake humanitarian activities.
UNITED NATIONS PROTECTION FORCE
UNPROFORCE is first set up in Croatia to ensure demilitarization of designated areas. Mandate was than extended to Bosnia and Herzegovina to support delivery of humanitarian relief, monitor no fly zone and safe areas. Later, UNPROFOR deploys to Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) for preventive monitoring in border areas. In March 1995, UNPROFOR was restructured as UNCRO (Croatia), UNPROFOR (Bosnia and Herzegovina) and UNPREDEP (FYROM).
UN PREDEP
UN preventive Deployment Force replaces UNPROFOR in Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Monitors development in areas along borders with Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and Albania which could undermine country’s stability, and promotes inter ethnic dialogue within country.
UN Mission in Bosnia Herzegovina
In December 1995, General Framework Agreement was signed, UNPROFOR withdraws and NATO led force (IFOR) was deployed. UNMIBH helped implement Agreement by coordinating UN activities related to humanitarian relief, demining, human rights, elections and rehabilitation of infrastructure, UNMIBH cooperated with IFOR and its successor SFOR. UNMIBH’s police Task Force monitored law enforcement.
UN Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia, Baranja and Western Sirmium
Basic Agreement of November 1995 provides for peaceful integration of region into Croatia and request UN to set up administration to govern region during transition and authorize international force to maintain law and order. UNTAES supervised demilitarization, monitored voluntary return of refugees, conducted and certified April 1997 elections.
UN Mission of observers in Prevlaka
UNMOP continues monitoring demilitarization of Prevlaka peninsula, a strategic area in southern Croatia bordering Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. This task was begun by UNPROFOR in October 1992 and carried on by UNCRO from 1995 to 1996.
UN Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo
In June 1999, Security Council authorizes a NATO led security presence (KFOR) to demilitarize Kosovo and maintain law and order, and UNMIK, a UN peacekeeping operation, to exercise administrative and executing authority, including administration of justice, rehabilitate the territory and prepare it for elections and eventual autonomy within Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
UNITED NATIONS PEACE KEEPING OPERATION IN
UN Operation in the
Newly independent Congo faced mutiny by armed forces. Belgian military intervened and led to increased disorder. Congo Government requested UN military assistance. The Security Council established ONUC. Province of Katanga seceded and ONUC faced task of maintains the country’s territorial integrity and political independence. The ONUC stopped civil war and secured withdrawal of foreign military from the Congo.
UN Angola Verification Mission I
Negotiation lead to agreement on phased withdrawal of Cuban troops from Angola, verified by UN military observer, as step towards an implementing UN plan for Namibia’s independence. UN observers report withdrawal of last Cuban troops from Angola in may 1991.
UN Angola verification Mission II
UNAVEM II deploys military and civilian personnel to help Angolan Government and UNITA carry out peace agreement ending 16 years of civil war and verifies election, but UNITA contests result. After renewed fighting, UNAVEM II helps two sides bring about ceasefire and agreements on completing peace process. UNITA and Government subsequently sign Lusaka Protocol. UNAVEM II verified stages of peace agreement.
UN ANGOLA VERIFICATION MISSION III
UNAVEM III helped Government and UNITA in restoring peace and achieving national reconciliation on the basis of peace Accords and Lusaka Protocol, including by monitoring ceasefire and disarmament and supporting humanitarian activities and mine clearance. Despite comprehensive timetable, parties did not complete all tasks before mandate ends. Follow on mission MONUA, continues to assist parties in consolidating peace and national reconciliation.
UN Transition Assistance Group
In 1978 sc adopts detailed plan for Namibia’s transition to independence through free and fair elections under UN supervision. Further negotiations spanning almost ten years are needed to overcome resistance to plan. In1989 UN fields UNTAG with 8,000military and civilian personnel of 120 nationalities. UNTAG’s mission accomplished .Namibia joined UN in April 1990.
UN Mission for the referendum in Western Sahara
In 1988, Morocco’s Government and Polisario agreed on plan leading to referendum allowing people of Western Sahara to decide territory’s political future. MINURSO deploys to implement ceasefire and organize conduct referendum. Difference over key elements delay plan’s full implementation; ceasefire remains in effect.
UN Operation in Somalia I
In 1991, factional fighting leads to famine and collapse of Government services. UNOSOM I monitor 1992 ceasefire, coordinate humanitarian assistance and ensure security of relief supplies. When situation deteriorates, Security Council authorizes Member states to form Unified Task Force UNITAF) to ensure safe delivery of humanitarian assistance.
UNOSOM II
UNOSOM II takes over from UNITAF. Its mandate is to establish, including through enforcement measures, secure environment for humanitarian assistance by monitoring ceasefires, seizing unauthorized arms, maintaining security at ports, mine clearing, and assisting refugee repatriation. UNOSOM also works to reestablish police and political structure. In 1994, after Security Council excludes coercive methods from mandate, UNOSOM II promotes negotiations and supports humanitarian efforts.
UN OBSERVER MISSION
Despite series of ceasefire, fighting resumes in 1993 between Rwanda’s Government and Rwandese Patriotic Front across border with Uganda. Following new ceasefire, Security Council deploys UNOMUR in Uganda to verify that no assistance is provided across the border.
UN Observer Mission in Liberia
Civil war breaks out in 1990. Economic Community of West African states (ECOWAS) dispatches peacekeeping force and mediates series of agreement. UNOMIL works with ECOMOG, monitors compliance with ceasefire and arms embargo, and demobilization. UNOMIL also investigates human rights violations. Despite serious set backs and fighting, parties agree to ECOWAS timetable in 1997. UNOMIL observes elections in consultation with ECOWAS and organization of African Unity.
UN Assistance Mission for Rwanda
UNAMIR helps implement Government-Rwandese Patriotic Front agreement by monitoring ceasefire and security in transition period .Anti-Tutsi genocide breaks out in April 1994. UNAMIR worked to secure ceasefire. Situation deteriorates further, and Security Council enlarges UNAMIR to protect relief operations to degree possible, but buildup was slow. After RPF Government was installed, UNAMIR supports reconciliation efforts and humanitarian assistance and contributes to security of human rights and International Tribunal personnel. After December 1995, UNAMIR focuses on facilitating safe return of refugees.
UN Azuzou Strip Observer Group
Chad and Libya refer territorial dispute to International court of justice in september1990. In accordance with Court’s decision, Libya withdraws from Azuzou Strip in April and May 1994. The Security Council deploys UNASOG monitor withdrawal. Mission concludes after both sides withdrawal complete.
UN MISSION IN THE CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
In 1196, Central African Republic is shaken by mutinies in army. In January 1997, after four African presidents mediate truce, parties sign Bangui Agreements, and inter African force (MISAB) deploys to monitor implementation. MINURCA takes over from MISAB to assist in maintaining security and stability, monitor final disposition of weapons retrieved in disarmament exercise and provide advice on restructuring national police and on election plans.
UN Observer Mission in Sierra Leone
The United Nation became involved in sierra Leon in 1995, when the Secretary General appointed a Special envoy to mediate in the civil war. Continuing unrest and civil war culminated in may 1997 military coup overthrowing democratically elected government. Subsequent intervention by Economic Community of West African States and its peacekeeping force restores elected government in March 1998. UNOMSIL is set up top monitor the country’s military and security situation and disarmament and demobilization in secured areas.
UN Mission in sierra Leon
Security Council sets up UNAMSIL to help parties implement Peace Agreement. UNAMSIL also provides security at key locations and assists Government in carrying out disarmament and demobilization plan. Key objectives include assisting Government to extend authority, restore Law and order and stabilize situation progressively throughout country; and providing support as requested for elections.
UN Organization Mission in Democratic Republic of the Congo
In 1997, factional tension, heightened by an attempt by government forces to disarm the militia of former president Denis Sassou Nguesso ahead of the presidential elections, called for July, escalated into full scale fighting between Sassou Nguesso’s supporters and government forces and militia loyal; to the incumbent president, Pascal Lissouba. The Security Council called for an end to the violence and a negotiated solution to the crisis. In mid 1999, six regional States and two Congolese rebel movement sign Ceasefire Agreement for cessation of hostilities between belligerent forces in Democratic Republic of Congo. MONUC set up to maintain liaison with the parties. In February 2000, MONUC expands to monitor implementation of ceasefire, devise action plan for overall implementation of Agreement and redeployment of parties’ forces.
UN Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
In July 2000, after two years of fighting in border dispute, Ethiopia and Eritrea sign cessation of hostilities agreement following proximity talks led by Algeria and Organization of African Unity. In July, Security Council sets up UNMEE to maintain liaison with parties and establish mechanism for verifying ceasefire. In September, Security Council authorize deployment of military personnel to monitor cessation of hostilities, redeployment of troops and temporary security zone; and to assist in ensuring observance of security commitments by parties.
UN Observer Group in Central America
The UN became involved in Central America in 1989, when Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua requested its assistance in their collective agreement to end the conflicts that were disrupting the region, promote democratic elections and pursue democratization and dialogue.
As part of Central American peace process, in 1989 Security Council establishes ONUCA to verify compliance by five Central American Governments with security commitments. Under Esquipulas II Agreement, ONUCA later assists in monitoring ceasefire and separation of forces between opposing parties in Nicaragua and in demobilizing Nicaraguan resistance.
UN Observer mission in El Salvador
An integrated operation, ONUSAL verifies agreement between Government of El Salvador and FMLN to end decade long civil war. Agreements cover ceasefire, reform and reduction of armed forces, creation of new police force, reform of judicial and electoral systems, human rights, land tenure, and other economic and social issues. ONUSAL also verifies election in match and April 1994. Its mandate ended in 1995.
UN Verification Mission in Guatemala
The Security Council from 1991 observed talks between government and URNG aimed at ending the civil war, which had lasted over three decades and resulted in some 200,000 people killed or missing. In 1996 Government and URNG sign peace agreement ending 36 years of conflict. Security Council attaches military component to MINUGUA, established in 1994 by General Assembly to verify human rights agreement. Military component verifies ceasefire agreement, separation of forces and demobilization of URNG combatants.
Conclusion
UN Peace keeping operations: A service to humanity .The aforementioned enormous successful Peacekeeping Operation vindicates that United Nations has accomplished its lofty objectives of service to humanity. The United Nations has justified its existence as effective global agency intended to bring and keep peace among international communities. No power can sideline or overshadow the United Nation, howsoever powerful on the earth. It must be remembered that the United Nation is not an external abstraction to resolve all problems that confronts sovereign states in their mutual relationships and a desire of living together as an international community.
Unfortunately, due to two main Muslim burning problems, it is widely believed by the Muslims all over the world that the United Nation has often been late to react to their political or socio-economic problem. It failed in Bosnia when the Serbs were carrying out ethnic cleansing against the Bosnian Muslims during 1992-93. It is unable or reluctant to implement its resolutions on Kashmir and Palestine, and the Cyprus issue remains unresolved. It was also absent during the slaughter in Rwanda during early n1990s.
The United Nation, in order to prove its effectiveness and usefulness must dispel this notion (prevailed) in the minds and hearts of Muslims of world by addressing their political and socio-economic problems. It is my personnel observation that the United Nation is doing a tremendous job to unravel these knotty problems. The main problem is that ninety percent of Muslim population of world lacks the ABC of English language, the official language of the United Nations. The information regarding the conducive and positive activities of the United Nations does not reach to the majority of Muslim population. Therefore, the United Nation must activate its information centers to disseminate and inform about its lofty activities and accomplished objectives not only to the masses of Muslim countries but also to the masses of world in their mother tongue. It will surely dispel the prevalent notion about the crucial work being accomplished by the United Nations irrespective of race and religion in the world.
The Muslim population of the world must be reminded and realized that it was the collective will of the United Nations that the tiny Arab country Kuwait was liberated from the inclement clutches of Sadam. There is no any Muslim country that could have liberated the Kuwait from bondage of sadist Sadam. The “Soul” of Islamic world Saudi Arabia would have been under the control of Sadam. It was the enormous diplomatic and political pressure of The United Nations that Soviet Empire withdrew from a Muslim country Afghanistan.
Being a Muslim it is shocking to learn the surprising truth that the United States contributes 25% followed by Japan and West Europe to the United Nations. The Muslim countries are reluctantly contributing hardly 10% to the United Nations. It is the responsibility of our Muslim rulers to reduce the suffering of our people. It is widely believed that these despotic rulers (majority pro US) in order to preserve their rule spent lions share on the whimsical notion of territorial security rather than human security. They clandestinely nurture ‘Terrorist Groups’ and create hue and cry against western democratic system.
The United Nations as a ‘Guardian’ of human security should strive to liberate peoples from the cruel clutches of despotic and undemocratic regimes from all over the world. No doubt they will cry and machinate against this positive development, but the down trodden people of world would remember this as golden moments in the history. The United Nation must wholly support the idea of ‘Regime Change’ in undemocratic countries of the world. These undemocratic and despotic rulers make hue and cry against the United Nation that this global body is not performing properly and hindering the process of development. These rulers should be punished so that the people of world live in a world of peace and fraternity. These rulers are the main supporter and nurturer of ‘Terrorist Groups’ creating uncertainty and terror in the world. These rulers and their cohorts are responsible for endangering the world peace and clash of civilizations. These undemocratic rulers would not hesitate to repeat the holocaust of 9/11 any where in the world only to perpetuate their unpopular and despotic rule. The United Nation can save heavy spending on peacekeeping operations by overthrowing these regimes all over the world. Actually these rogue regimes are responsible for political crisis. The United Nations should make it obligatory to protect the idea of human security rather than protecting and validating undemocratic regimes. The UN in the supreme interest of people of world support and promote the process of democratization of world.
The majority of Muslim population has appreciated the efforts of UN in Iraq, where a dictator was overthrown and humiliated by the US and its allies. The International Politics revealed that how other ‘parasite’ dictators are acceding to the will of world body. The Libyan dictator had conceded to the collective will of global body only to save his despotic rule over the country. The UN should not accept his rule; otherwise the people of world would consider UN as collaborators of these dictators. This policy on the part of UN is highly unacceptable to the majority of masses of world.
UN Secretary General Kofi Annan pointed out in a most significant document on Africa, The Causes of Conflict and the Promotion of Durable peace and sustainable Development in Africa, that “United Nations peacekeeping will not always be the best answer to every problem, either in Africa or elsewhere”. He also conceded that “conflict in Africa posed a major challenge to UN efforts designed to ensure global peace, prosperity and Human rights for all”.
In my opinion it is not the failure or inability of United Nation but it is the veto power frequently used by mighty powers to procure their vital interest. “The overriding vested political and economic interests of the more influential and powerful players limit its role in conflict prevention and resolution”. The Brahimi report contends “Member states must recognize that the United Nation is the sum of its parts and accept that the primary responsibility for reform lies within them. The failures of the United Nations are not those of the Secretariat alone, or troop commanders or the leaders of field missions. Most occurred because the Security Council and the Member States crafted and supported ambiguous, inconsistent and under-funded mandates and then stood back and watched as they failed, sometimes even adding critical public commentary as the credibility of the United Nations underwent its severest tests.”
I would conclude the article with the golden words of Kofi Annan “The international system for much of the last century was based on division and hard calculations of real politic. In the new century, we can and must do better. I do not mean to suggest that an era of complete harmony is within our reach, of course, interests and ideas will always clash. But we can improve on the last century’s dismal record”.
Professor DR Abdul Qayum Mangi,
Ex Principal & Chairman, Department of International Relations,
Post Graduate Studies Centre at Islamia Arts/Comm College
Sukkur Sindh
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